History of MafiaA game called Murder, which is the prototype of Mafia, has been played for many years. In Murder, one murderer is selected by the moderator, and can kill one person per night. There is a detective who can inquire about one player per night. Dmitry Davidoff believes this game to have originated in England in the 1970's. It quite probably goes back much further, though.
We have received correspondence from Mr. Brian G. McCue, who states that he played the game "Murder" on 31st December 1969 with a group of people who had definitely played "Murder" in the December of '67, and possibly earlier. These games were played in Vermont.
Mr. Davidoff also recalls a Russian game called Ubiitca, which he translates as "Muderer." In Ubiitca, there is not night, and the lone murderer kills by "winking" at his victim during the day. The victim, seeing the wink, must say "ouch" and die. This version is played with and without a detective, although it is not absolutely clear what the role of the detective is in this game. Played with a night, this game is identical to Murder, except in small logistical details.
Mr. Davidoff claims to have invented the modern game of Mafia in 1986. He describes the main thrust of the game as "informed minority versus uniformed majority." In his Mafia, members of the Mafia see each other in a preliminary "night." Following this, accusations begin. Mafia members know who each other are, but civilians, in the majority, do not. Multiple convictions are allowed, and night falls whenever a majority vote for it to end. During night, everyone writes something on a piece of paper; civilians write "Honest" and Mafia members write the name of the person they want to kill. The papers are collected by a moderator or a democratically-elected leader. All Mafia must choose the same person in order for the murder to be accomplished. Effective Mafia must therefore signal during the day, secretly. Note that the number of papers not marked "Honest" is the sole indication of how many Mafia are left.
The difference between Murder and Davidoff's game is therefore that there are multiple murderers who work together. Kai Chan reports, however, that his mother played "Murder" with multiple murderers and inspectors in 1956-57, in England. Therefore, this innovation predates Mr. Davidoff's game. Mr. Davidoff may have invented the game independently, but he is not the originator.
The next definite reference to the game is found in Hungary, where a group of players founded an organization in 1996. However, this page mentions that many players recognised the game played as a variant of other games. In the Hungarian rules, there is only one execution per day, but the Mafia still need blind unanimity during the night, although this is achieved in a different way. The game also caught on in Norway, where the inspector is given the name of a Mafia member every night. This game, according to Vegard Engstrom, was dervied from the game Kommisar Katania which was the name of a character in "La Piovra", an Italian television series.
Mafia was introduced in Princeton by Steve Phelps on September 15, 1998, and was first played as a regular event on September 24, 1998.
Introduction to MafiaThe Introduction. On this page, we present the basic rules of Mafia for people who have never played before. If you already know how to play you can see the advanced rules, and our lists of different roles and variants.
The Scenario. Mafia is a game that pits the forces of light against the forces of darkness. The players in a game of Mafia are residents of a small Italian village. The village is being terrorized by the mafia. During the night, the mafia roam about the village, selecting a law-abiding civilian as their victim. During the day, the villagers gather together, seeking justice, and vote to convict one of their number of secretly being a member of the mafia.
The Number of Players. 8-10 is ideal. Games with fewer people are simpler. Games with 11-16 people can have lots of interesting characters. Minimum number is 3. No maximum number, although becomes unwieldy with 17+.
The Equipment. One standard deck of cards (optional).
The Goal of the Game. The goal of the game is to be the last team standing. If you are a member of the mafia, your goal is to kill off all the villagers in the game. If you are a villager, your goal is to kill off the mafia before they kill you off.
The Deal. One player is selected each round to be the moderator. The moderator does not participate in the game as a player, but manages the game and remains absolutely neutral. The moderator shall choose cards out of the deck representing:
Mafia: black numbered (2-9) cards
Villagers: red numbered (2-9) cards
It is recommended that the number of each type of cards be adjusted according to the size of the game.
With 3-6 players have 1 mafia.
For 7-8 players, have 2 mafia.
For 9-12 players, have 3 mafia.
For 13-16 players, have 4 mafia.
Generally having one-third of the village to be mafia works pretty well.
The moderator will deal one card face down to each player. Each player will look at their own card to see whether he or she is a mafia or a villager. No one shall ever show his or her card to others at any point during the game.
The Play. The game happens in phases. There are 2 types of phases - nights and days, which happen alternately. The moderator shall announce the end of each phase and the beginning of the next one. The game starts in a night phase.
Night. Whenever the moderator announces nightfall, all the players (but not the moderator) shall close their eyes (and no peeking is allowed). No one but the moderator is allowed to speak during the night. The moderator shall announce "Mafia awaken." The mafia, and only the mafia, shall open their eyes. They shall decide amongst themselves by means of hand gestures who should be killed. They shall communicate to the moderator by means of pointing. The moderator, once he or she understands who is to be killed, shall announce "Mafia go back to sleep." and the mafia shall close their eyes. The moderator shall announce who died during the night, and this will end the night phase.
Day. After the name of the dead person is announced, the moderator shall ask everyone to wake up. Dead people are not allowed to speak for the rest of the game, or in any other way communicate with the living. He may keep his eyes open at all times.
At this point, the remaining survivors may vote to convict someone of being mafia. The survivors may freely discuss the situation. Lying is permissible, and, for the mafia, often necessary. Players are allowed to whisper to each other, or speak in any language of their choice. However, no one is ever allowed to ask another player about his or her actual card number, and similarly no player is ever allowed to claim to have a particular card. (For example, a player is allowed to claim to be a villager, but he or she is not allowed to claim to be holding the Five of Hearts). No player, though, under any circumstances, may display their card to another player.
At any point during the day, a player can make a formal accusation against any other player of being mafia. If an accusation is lodged, the moderator shall ask everyone to be silent, and the accuser shall be allowed to state a prosecution. Then the accused shall be allowed to state a defence. Then, the moderator shall take a vote. The votes should be independent, so the moderator counts upto the three and everyone who wants the accused dead, raises their hands exactly on the count of three. If a strict majority of the surviving members vote to convict, then the convicted player is put to death and may no longer participate in the game. If there is no majority in favor of conviction, the accused is aquitted and discussions continue. However he or she cannot be accused by the same accuser in the very next formal accusation.
The day ends immediately after someone has been convicted and killed. No further discussions can take until the beginning of the next day. To ensure that the game does not drag on indefinitely, the moderator is allowed to set a fixed amount of time per day (typically 10 minutes), and can force nightfall at the end of that period. In that case, no one dies during the day.
Winning. The game shall be won by the mafia if there are no more villagers left. The villagers win if all the mafia are killed. The moderator shall announce the end of the game and the winning side the moment the game ends. It is a team victory so players can win posthumously.
Rules of MafiaThe introduction. On this page, we present the rules of Mafia for people who have played a little before. If you have never player, you can see our introduction.
The scenario. There are 2 teams, the informed minority and the uninformed majority, often known as mafia and villagers, respectively. Generally, a mafia member knows all of his or her teammates, while a villager only knows that he or she is a villager and has no idea who the mafia are. The aim of the game is to be the last team standing. The game happens in 2 phases, nights and days. During the night, mafia members choose to kill some villager. During the day, everyone talks among themselves, trying to figure out who are mafia are. If a majority of the surviving people think that someone is mafia, they lynch that person. The mafia have the advantage of having complete information, while the villagers have the advantage of numbers.
Special roles. Generally we play with special characters, who are villagers or mafia with extra powers. The red face cards are used to denote the special villagers and the black face cards are used to denote the special mafia. Each special character has either a night time ability or a day time ability. For people with night time ability, the moderator wakes them up one at a time, and allows them to perform their ability. Even if a special role is dead, the moderator still has to wake them up to ensure that the moderator does not reveal the information that the special role is dead.
Card numbers. In Mafia, the different roles are identifiable, but the card numbers are not. This means that players cannot claim which card they have.
Number of players. Seven players are ideal for your first few games of Mafia. See our recommended games for ideas on how to distribute roles. The most common special characters, apart from the villagers (2-9&diams) and the mafia (2-10&clubs, 2-10&spades), are the detective (K&diams, K&hearts) and the doctor (Q&diams, Q&hearts).
Free mistakes. An important concept for the villagers to understand is that of free mistakes.
Free nights. Another important concept is that of free nights.
Mob rule. What happens when the village is unable to decide what to do one day? The moderator normally has placed a time limit on the day; when this is exceeded, the village descends into mob rule. No further speaking is allowed.
Evil eye. Sometimes everyone ones to play. In this case the Mafia can kill in the first night by a process known as evil eye.
Powers. By default, no power is compulsory &mdash the mafia don't have to kill, the doctor doesn't have to save anyone, etc.
Moderating. face direction, public information.
Variants. There are thousands of variations on the theme of Mafia. See our pages of roles and variants.
Mafia Variants Rotating Cop
Aliases: Witness.
One alternative to having a traditional detective is rotating cop.
Doctor can save self
One common variant is allowing the doctor to save themselves. We generally don't allow this, since it can lead to draw situations where one mafia and the doctor are left alive.
Known identities
Many people play by revealing the cards of players who die, so that you know what their role was. We used to play like this, but found this game was far to easy for the villagers.
Multiple families
If you want a bloodier game, consider having multiple, competing, mafia families. Each family (normally clubs and spades, although if you want a really, really, bloody game you can have 2s, 3s, 4s and so on) is woken up in turn by the moderator and allowed to kill. Thus multiple players will die each night. Each family is trying to be the only players left alive.
Note. If there is a doctor in the game, he can save one bullet each night. If more than one family shoots someone, the doctor can't save them (unless there are two doctors, of course).
Mafia Roles
There are many different roles that can be present in a game of mafia. On this page we list many of the roles we know.
Played. There are many roles we play with on a semi-regular basis.
On the villager team: On the mafia team: On other teams:
Vigilante (A&diams, A&hearts)
Detective (K&diams, K&hearts)
Doctor (Q&diams, Q&hearts)
Coroner (J&diams, J&hearts)
Saint (10&diams, 10&hearts)
Freemasons (3&diams+3&hearts or 2-9&hearts)
Villager (2-9&diams)
Mafia (2-10&clubs, 2-10&spades)
Terrorist (A&clubs, A&spades)
Framer (K&clubs, K&spades)
Stripper (Q&clubs, Q&spades)
Jekyll and Hyde (Q&hearts+Q&spades)
Warlock (Joker)
Vampire (K&spades)
Not played. There are many roles that we have come across or thought about, but for one reason or another have never played with. Obviously we can't vouch for the enjoyability of these roles.
Accident Victim
Alternating Power
Avenging Siblings
Bodyguard
Bookie
Bulletproof Vest
Bus Driver
Cherub
Cupid and the Lovers
Devil
Double Agent
Forensic Specialist
Freelancer
Godfather
Governor
Invisible Godfather
James Bond
Judas and Saulas
Jury
Kingmaker
Magistrate
Martyr
Mayor
Medical Examiner
Miller
Prostitute
Proxy
Psychologist
Rambo
Random Vigilante
Scharping
Sensei
Serial Killer
Special Prosecutor
Stalker
Stoiber
Thief
Tree Stump
Undead
Walrus and Tooth Fairy
Wild Card Joker
Cards. You can of course use any cards you want to represent roles, or even some other method of determining them. However, we've found it useful to keep a consistent set of cards so that players don't get confused. Also remember that all the cards representing the same role are indistinguishable, so, for example, players aren't allowed to say which villager card they have.
Werewolf. Many people play Mafia under the name of Werewolf, in which case many of the roles have different names. You can also combine to two games as in our Mafia and Werewolves variant. In this case all werewolf characters affect other werewolf characters if possible.
Coroner (J&diams or J&hearts)
The coroner has a night-time power, that he can use once per game, to reveal the identity of all previously dead players. Each night the moderator wakes up the coroner, and asks "Do you want to use your ability?" If the coroner indicates "yes" by nodding, then the cards of all players who died previous to that night are turned face up.
The coroner is particularly useful in large and complex games with multiple teams, and can give the villagers enough information about the state of the game in the final rounds to allow a victory.
Note. Obviously this role makes no sense while using the known identities variant.
Detective (K&diams or K&hearts)
Aliases: Angel, Cop, Informant, Inspector, Policeman, Sheriff.
Werewolf variant: Seer.
The detective is one of the most basic games in the game of Mafia. Each night he is woken by the moderator (who says "Detective awake") and given an opportunity to investigate another player (the detective indicates who he would like to investigate by pointing). The moderator indicates by nodding or shaking their head whether or not that player is a mafia member. Note that characters working for the mafia that cannot kill at night (such as the terrorist) appear to be innocent.
The detective often wants to keep his identity secret, to protect from mafia reprisals. One useful strategy is for the detective to investigate the people sitting next to him. If they are innocent, he can then reveal his information to them without being in danger (unless there's a terrorist in the game).
Doctor (Q&diams or Q&hearts)
Aliases: Archangel, Doctor, Nurse, Medic.
Werewolf variant: Sorcerer, Healer.
The doctor is a protecting character, who wakes up once during each night and attempts to save another player. Each night the moderator wakes up the doctor by saying "Doctor awake". The doctor then indicates by pointing which player he would like to try to save. The doctor does not have to try to save anyone; and he may not select himself. If the selected person is chosen to be killed by the mafia during the same night, then that killing is prevented, and the moderator merely announces at daybreak that no-one was killed during the night.
In more complicated games there can be multiple bullets flying around, from multiple Mafia families or the vigilante, for example. In this case the doctor can only treat one bullet wound. So, if the player saved is only hit by one bullet, they are saved; but if hit by more than one, then they die. In a very large game, with multiple doctors, each doctor can treat an additional bullet wound.
When playing with a doctor, the detective has more leeway in revealing himself, since the doctor can protect him from the mafia. Of course, you can introduce a terrorist to encourage the detective to keep his peace (or at least work more subtly). Note. If playing with werewolves one must decide whether either or both of the doctor and healer can save vigilante targets.
Note. We received on 12/27/99 a communication from Ephraim Ross of Pomona College who has informed us that he has played with a similar character called the Sheriff. We refer to a different role by that name.
See also. Doctor can save self.
Framer (K&clubs or K&spades)
The framer is a special Mafia member. In addition to waking at night with the other mafia and killing someone, he has the ability to frame another member of the village. Each night after the mafia have chosen who to kill the moderator shall ask all but the framer to sleep, and then ask the framer to indicate whom he would like to frame. If this person is investigated by the detective that night he is found to be guilty.
Freemasons (3&diams and 3&hearts, or 2-9&hearts)
Aliases: Masons.
We all know that our small Italian village is filled with Mafia and civilians, as well as the occasional werewolf or heavenly visitor. However, some of the civilians may be more than plain civilians. A select group of these citizens may be freemasons.
Freemasons are just like plain civilians in every respect, except that they know each other from long-standing membership in the Masonic Lodge. They know each other well enough that they are sure their fellow Masons cannot be members of the mafia.
Practically, freemasons wake up the first night for the sole purpose of recognizing each other. After that, they are just plain civilians for the rest of the game.
The existence of freemasons is a strong power for the civilians, because there is a nucleus of civilians in which no member will vote for the lynching of another member. Thus the number of freemasons should be small (almost certainly not outnumbering the mafia).
If one or more freemasons are killed off early, their utility is very low, but freemasons surviving to the end of the game are extremely valuable to the civilians. It is only toward the very end of the game that mafia members may claim to be freemasons in order to convince civilians to kill off the real freemasons. This is a desperate and risky strategy.
Note. This concept originated when Matt Hindman, on December 10, 1998, started asking people, "Are you a member of the Brotherhood?" (meaning the Mafia). Adrian Banner then asked, concerning one person, "What does it matter if he's a Mason? Find out if he's Mafia!"
Note. If there are just two freemasons in the village then they become 'three-masons' represented by the 3&diams and 3&hearts. Otherwise use the 2-9&hearts.
Jekyll and Hyde (Q&hearts and Q&spades)
Jekyll and Hyde are a third faction of the village, in addition to the civilians and the mafia. Jekyll, of course, has all the powers of the doctor, while Hyde is a member of the mafia and kills with the other mafia at night. However, Jekyll and Hyde will ultimately betray their teams and try to be the sole survivors of the village. One weakness they have is that if one of them dies, so does the other, instantly.
In practical terms, the moderator wakes both characters in the first night so that they know each other. After this they are woken just as doctor and mafia.
Mafia (2-10&clubs or 2-10&spades)
Aliases: Innocent Villager, Civilian, Victim, Ordinary Townsperson.
Werewolf variant: Werewolf.
The mafia get to kill people.
See also. Ranked Mafia.
Saint (10&diams or 10&hearts)
Aliases: Supersaint.
The saint is a special character on the side of the civilians. His power is purely posthumous: when successfully lynched by the villagers, the villagers realise what a terrible mistake they have just made in killing such an innocent person, and turn in anger on the saint's accuser who then dies.
An added rule is that if the saint dies during mob-rule, since there is no clear accuser, all players who voted for the saint die. This has led to mass mafia deaths in the past, and can lead to some interesting villager strategies.
Note. We discovered this variant from Michael Shadbolt.
Stripper (Q&clubs or Q&spades)
The stripper is a member of a mafia with an extra ability. Each night, after the mafia have killed, the stripper is woken up alone and asked who he would like to 'distract'. Their target is unable to use any special ability that same night (so the vigilante wouldn't get to kill, the detective would not have an investigation). The moderator should indicate to the target that they are prevented from using their ability by holding his hand out indicating stop.
Terrorist (A&clubs,A&spades)
Aliases: Suicide bomber.
The terrorist is one the side of the mafia, but is not himself a mafia member (he does not wake with the mafia or kill at night). During the first night, when the mafia are awake, the moderator asks the terrorist to give a hand signal so that the mafia know his identity. The terrorist does not know the identity of the mafia however &emdash an important part of his role is working this out.
The terrorist has one special ability. At any time during the day (except during the countdown to a vote, or mob-rule) the terrorist can bomb any other player, killing both himself and the victim.
Note. This role was originally created by Florian Wlater, and came to use via Michael Hoffman.
Variant. You can play that the terrorist cannot be killed by the mafia at night.
Vampire (K&spades)
The vampire is a player on his own team, and like the other teams wants to be the last team standing. His main advantage is that he can sometimes convert other players into vampires. Each night he chooses a player. Normally that player is killed. However, if the vampire's victim did anything to the vampire that night (shot, investigated, saved, etc.) then that player is instead converted to the vampire's team.
At the end of every night the moderator must walk around the room and tap any converted players, to announce to them that they have been converted. The converted player does not know who the original vampire was.
If the original vampire dies, and there are other vampires in the game, the next highest ranking vampire in terms of age takes over as lead vampire.
Note. Previously we used the name 'vampire' to refer to a different role. We now refer to that role as the undead.
Vigilante (A&diams or A&hearts)
The vigilante is on the side of the villagers, but is woken up each night by the moderator and given an opportunity to kill someone.
Note. Remember that players aren't allowed to signal each other at night (in particular, the detective can't indicate to the vigilante whom to kill).
Note. This character was originally suggested by Steven J Miller.
Variant. One variant of this character is that if the vigilante and the mafia both kill the same person, the vigilante is caught by the mafia and dies as well.
Variant. Another variant is to disallow the vigilante a kill if he is killed by the mafia the same night. While we don't normally play with this, is does solve the problem of a draw where everyone dies.
Villager (2-9&diams)
Aliases: Innocent Villager, Civilian, Victim, Ordinary Townsperson.
The innocent villagers have no special abilities. All they can do is discuss, vote and die.
Warlock (Joker)
The warlock is a team all by himself. On the first night he is woken up, and the roles of all the players are revealed to him by the moderator &emdash he indicates first the mafia, then the detective, and so on. Then, and on each successive night, he is asked to predict who, if anyone, will be lynched the following day. The warlock wins the game if he predicts the outcome correctly three times.
The warlock needs a reasonably sized game to stand a change of winning. Lowering the number of correct predictions needed to win tends to unbalance the game and make it too 'swingy'. The warlock often ends up revealing himself and making bargains with one side or the other with his knowledge of the game.
Undead
The undead begins the game as a civilian, but upon being killed, is immediately (but only once) reborn as a member of the mafia.
There are several logistical problems associated with this variant, mainly dealing with the fact that the identity of the undead would be obvious when he came back to life. However, if this were combined with a variant in which resurrections were already going on, it may pass unnoticed.
An alternative that minimizes this problem is to have the undead only change sides upon being killed by the mafia at night (if lynched during the day, he dies normally). In this case the moderator would simply announce that no-one was killed during the night.
If combined with the role of a magistrate, then the moderator could simply announce after the undead is lynched, "Your lynching failed." The civilians would not know whether the lynchee was an undead or someone under the protection of the magistrate.
Note. This role was originally called the 'vampire'. More recently we use that name to refer to a different role.
Note. This role obviously makes no sense when playing with the known identities variant.
Note. This role was originally suggested by Adrian Banner.
Variant. Mr Banner suggested that the undead be able to choose on which turn to return to life, further confusing issues.
Variant. When the undead is reborn at night, due to a mafia killing, the moderator could announce there was an 'undead sighting' to indicate to the villagers what occurred. Of course, the villagers wouldn't know who the undead was.